C

Corr, Erin, an eminent engraver, born in Brussels, of Irish descent; spent 10 years in engraving on copper-plate Rubens's "Descent from the Cross" (1793-1862).

Corrector, Alexander the, Alexander Cruden, who believed he had a divine mission to correct the manners of the world.

Correggio, Antonio Allegri da, an illustrious Italian painter, born at Correggio, in Modena; founder of the Lombard school, and distinguished among his contemporaries for the grace of his figures and the harmony of his colouring; he has been ranked next to Raphael, and it has been said of him he perfected his art by adding elegance to truth and grandeur; he is unrivalled in chiaroscuro, and he chose his subjects from pagan as well as Christian legend (1494-1534).

Corrib, Lough, an irregularly shaped lake in Galway and Mayo, 25 m. long and from 1 to 6 m. broad, with stone circles near it.

Corrientes (300), a province of the Argentine Republic, between the Paraná and the Uruguay; also its capital (18), surrounded by orange-groves; so called from the currents that prevail in the river, along which steamers ply between it and Buenos Ayres.

Corrugated Iron, in general, sheet-iron coated with zinc.

Corsair, The, a poem of Byron's, in which the author paints himself in heroic colours as an adventurer who drowns reflection in the intoxication of battle.

Corsica (288), an island belonging to France, in the Mediterranean, ceded to her by Genoa in 1768, but by position, race, and language belongs to Italy; has been subject by turns to the powers that in succession dominated that inland sea; is 116 m. long and 52 broad; it abounds in mountains, attaining 9000 ft.; covered with forests and thickets, which often serve as shelter for brigands; it affords good pasturage, and yields olive-oil and wine, as well as chesnuts, honey, and wax.

Corsica Paoli, a native of Corsica, who vainly struggled to achieve the independence of his country, and took refuge in England, where he enjoyed the society of the Johnson circle, and was much esteemed. See Paoli.

Corssen, William Paul, a learned German philologist, born at Bremen; made a special study of the Latin languages, and especially the Etruscan, which he laboured to prove was cognate with that of the Romans and of the races that spoke it (1820-1875).

Cort, an eminent Dutch engraver, went to Venice, lived with Titian; engraved some of his pictures; went to Rome and engraved Raphael's "Transfiguration"; executed over 150 plates, all displaying great accuracy and refinement (1536-1578).

Cortes, the name given in Spain and Portugal to the National Assembly, consisting of nobles and representatives of the nation.

Cortes, a Spanish soldier and conqueror of Mexico, born in Estremadura; went with Velasquez to Cuba; commanded the expedition to conquer Mexico, and by burning all his ships that conveyed his men, cut off all possibility of retreat; having conquered the tribes that he met on landing, he marched on to the capital, which, after a desperate struggle, he reduced, and laid waste and then swept the country, by all which he added to the wealth of Spain, but by his cruelty did dishonour to the chivalry of which Spain was once so proud (1485-1547).

Cortona, Pietro da, an Italian painter, born at Cortona, in Tuscany, and eminent as an architect also; decorated many of the finest buildings in Rome (1596-1669).

Coruña (34), a fortified town on NW. of Spain, with a commodious harbour, where Sir John Moore fell in 1809 while defending the embarkation of his army against Soult, and where his tomb is.

Corvée, obligation as at one time enforced in France to render certain services to Seigneurs, such as repairing of roads, abolished by the Contituent Assembly.

Coryat, Thomas, an English traveller and wit, who, in his "Crudities," quaintly describes his travels through France and Italy (1577-1617).

Corybantes, priests of Cybele (q. v.), whose religious rites were accompanied with wild dances and the clashing of cymbals.

Corydon, a shepherd in Virgil, name for a lovesick swain.

Coryphæus, originally the leader of the chorus in a Greek drama, now a leader in any dramatic company, or indeed in any art.

Cos (10), an island in the Ægean Sea, birthplace of Hippocrates and Apelles.

Cosenza (18), a town in Calabria, in a deep valley, where Alaric died.

Cosin, John, a learned English prelate, Dean of Peterborough, deposed by the Puritans for his ritualistic tendencies; exiled for 10 years in Paris; returned at the Restoration, and was made Bishop of Durham, where he proved himself a Bishop indeed, and a devoted supporter of the Church which he adorned by his piety (1594-1672).

Cosmas, St., Arabian physician and patron of surgeons, brother of St. Damian; suffered martyrdom in 303. Festival, Sept. 27.

Cosmas Indicopleustes (i. e. voyager to India), an Egyptian monk of the 6th century, born in Alexandria, singular for his theory of the system of the world, which, in opposition to the Ptolemaic system, he viewed as in shape like that of the Jewish Tabernacle, with Eden outside, and encircled by the ocean, a theory he advanced as in conformity with Scripture.

Cosmo I., Grand-duke of Tuscany, head of the Republic of Florence, of which he made himself absolute master, a post he held in defiance of all opposition, in order to secure the independence of the state he governed, as well as its internal prosperity (1519-1574).

Cosmography, any theory which attempts to trace the system of things back to its first principle or primordial element or elements.

Cosquin, Emmanuel, a French folk-lorist, and author of "Popular Tales of Lorraine," in the introduction to which he argues for the theory that the development as well as the origin of such tales is historically traceable to India; b. 1841.

Cossacks, a military people of mixed origin, chiefly Tartar and Slav, who fought on horseback, in their own interest as well as that of Russia, defending its interests in particular for centuries past in many a struggle, and forming an important division of the Russian army.

Costa Rica (262), a small republic of Central America; it is mostly tableland; contains many volcanoes; is chiefly agricultural, though rich in minerals.

Costard, a clown in "Love's Labour Lost," who apes the affected court-wits of the time in a misappropriate style.

Costello, Louisa Stuart, an English authoress; her descriptive powers were considerable, and her novels had a historical groundwork (1799-1870).

Coster, alias Laurens Janszoon, born at Haarlem, to whom his countrymen, as against the claims of Gutenberg, ascribe the invention of printing (1370-1440).

Cosway, Richard, a distinguished miniature portrait-painter, born at Tiverton; Correggio his model (1740-1821).

Côte d'Or, a range of hills in the NE. of France, connecting the Cévennes with the Vosges, which gives name to a department (376) famed for its wines.

Cotentin, a peninsula NW. of Normandy, France, jutting into the English Channel, now forms the northern part of the dep. La Manche, the fatherland of many of the Norman conquerors of England.

Cotes, Roger, an English mathematician of such promise, that Newton said of him, "If he had lived, we should have known something" (1682-1716).

Côtes du Nord (618), a dep. forming part of Brittany; the chief manufacture is linen.

Cotin, the Abbé, a French preacher, born in Paris; a butt of the sarcasm of Molière and Boileau (1604-1682)

Cotman, John Sell, an English painter, born at Norwich; made Turner's acquaintance; produced water-colour landscapes, growing in repute; has been pronounced "the most gifted of the Norwich School" (1782-1842).

Cotopaxi, a volcano of the Andes, in Ecuador, the highest and most active in the world, nearly 20,000 ft., 35 m. SE. of Quito; it rises in a perfect cone, 4400 ft. above the plateau of Quito.

Cotswold Hills, in Gloucestershire, separating the Lower Severn from the sources of the Thames; they are of limestone rock, 50 m. long, and extend N. and S.

Cotta, Caius, a distinguished Roman orator, 1st century B.C.; mentioned with honour by Cicero.

Cotta, German publisher, born at Stuttgart; established in Tübingen; published the works of Goethe, Schiller, Jean Paul, Herder, and others of note among their contemporaries (1764-1832).

Cottian Alps, the range N. of the Maritime between France and Italy.

Cottin, Sophie, a celebrated French authoress; wrote, among other romances, the well-known and extensively translated "Elizabeth; or, the Exiles of Siberia," a wildly romantic but irreproachably moral tale (1773-1807).

Cottle, Joseph, a publisher and author; started business in Bristol; published the works of Coleridge and Southey on generous terms; wrote in his "Early Recollections" an exposure of Coleridge that has been severely criticised and generally condemned (1770-1853).

Cotton, Bishop, born at Chester; eminent as a master at Rugby under Dr. Arnold, and as head-master at Marlborough College; was appointed Bishop of Calcutta, an office he fulfilled zealously; was drowned in the Ganges; he figures as "the young master" in "Tom Brown's School-days" (1813-1866).

Cotton, Charles, a poet, born in Staffordshire; his poetry was of the burlesque order, and somewhat gross; chiefly famous for his translation of "Montaigne's Essays"; was friend and admirer of Isaak Walton, and wrote a supplement to his "Angler" (1630-1687).

Cotton, Sir Robert Bruce, a distinguished antiquary, and founder of the Cottonian Library, now in the British Museum, born at Denton; was a friend of Camden, and assisted him in his great work; was a great book-collector; was exposed to persecution for his presumed share in the publication of an obnoxious book, of which the original was found in his collection; had his books, in which he prided himself, taken from him, in consequence of which he pined and died (1571-1631).

Coucy, an old noble family of Picardy, who had for device, "Roi ne suis, ne duc, ne comte aussi; je suis le sire de Coucy." Raoul, a court-poet of the family in the 12th century, lost his life at the siege of Acre in the third crusade.

Coulomb, a learned French physicist and engineer, born at Angoulême; the inventor of the torsion balance, and to whose labours many discoveries in electricity and magnetism are due; lived through the French Revolution retired from the strife (1736-1806).

Councils, Church, assemblies of bishops to decide questions of doctrine and ecclesiastical discipline. They are oecumenical, national, or provincial, according as the bishops assembled represented the whole Church, a merely national one, or a provincial section of it. Eastern: Nice, 325 (at which Arius was condemned), 787; Constantinople, 381 (at which Apollinaris was condemned), 553, 680, 869; Ephesus, 431 (at which Nestorius was condemned); Chalcedon, 451 (at which Eutyches was condemned). Western: Lateran, 1123, 1139, 1179, 1215, 1274; Synod of Vienne, 1311; Constance, 1414; Basel, 1431-1443; Trent, 1545-1563; Vatican, 1869.

Courayes, a French Roman Catholic ecclesiastic who pled on behalf of Anglican orders; was censured; fled to England, where he was welcomed, and received academic honours (1681-1777).

Courbet, a French vice-admiral, born at Abbeville; distinguished himself by his rapid movements and brilliant successes in the East (1827-1885).

Courbet, Gustave, French painter, born at Ornans; took to landscape-painting; was head of the Realistic school; joined the Commune in 1871; his property and pictures were sold to pay the damage done, and especially to restore the Vendôme Column; died an exile in Switzerland (1819-1877).

Courier, Paul Louis, a French writer, born at Paris; began life as a soldier, but being wounded at Wagram, retired from the army, and gave himself to letters; distinguished himself as the author of political pamphlets, written with a scathing irony such as has hardly been surpassed, which brought him into trouble; was assassinated on his estate by his gamekeeper (1772-1825).

Courland (637), a partly wooded and partly marshy province of Russia, S. of the Gulf of Riga; the population chiefly German, and Protestants; agriculture their chief pursuit.

Court de Gébelin, a French writer, born at Nîmes, author of a work entitled "The Primitive World analysed and compared with the Modern World" (1725-1784).

Courtney, William, archbishop of Canterbury, no match for Wickliffe in debate, but had his revenge in persecuting his followers (1341-1396).

Courtois, Jacques, a French painter of battle-pieces; became a Jesuit, died a monk (1621-1676).

Courtrais (29), a Belgian town on the Lys.

Cousin, Victor, a French philosopher, born in Paris; founder of an eclectic school, which derived its doctrines partly from the Scottish philosophy and partly from the German, and which Dr. Chalmers in his class-room one day characterised jocularly as neither Scotch nor German, but just half seas over; he was a lucid expounder, an attractive lecturer, and exerted no small influence on public opinion in France; had a considerable following; retired from public life in 1848, and died at Cannes; he left a number of philosophic works behind him, the best known among us "Discourses on the True, the Beautiful, and the Good" (1792-1867).

Cousin Michael, a disparaging designation of our German kindred, as slow, heavy, unpolished, and ungainly.

Cousin-Montauban, a French general, commanded the Chinese expedition of 1860, and, after a victory over the Chinese, took possession of Pekin (1796-1878).

Cousins, Samuel, a mezzotint engraver, born at Exeter; engraved "Bolton Abbey," "Marie Antoinette in the Temple," and a number of plates after eminent painters; left a fund to aid poor artists (1801-1880).

Couston, the name of three eminent French sculptors: Nicolas (1658-1733); Guillaume, father (1678-1746); and Guillaume, son (1716-1777).

Couthon, Georges, a violent revolutionary, one of a triumvirate with Robespierre and St. Just, who would expel every one from the Jacobin Club who could not give evidence of having done something to merit hanging, should a counter-revolution arrive; was paralysed in his limbs from having had to spend a night "sunk to the middle in a cold peat bog" to escape detection as a seducer; trapped for the guillotine; tried to make away with himself under a table, but could not (1756-1794).

Coutts, Thomas, a banker, born in Edinburgh, his father having been Lord Provost of that city; joint-founder and eventually sole manager of the London banking house, Coutts & Co.; left a fortune of £900,000 (1735-1822).

Couvade, a custom among certain races of low culture in which a father before and after childbirth takes upon himself the duties and cares of the mother.

Couza, Prince, born at Galatz, hereditary prince of Moldavia and Wallachia; reigned from 1858 to 1860; died in exile, 1873.

Covenant, Solemn League and, an engagement, with representatives from Scotland, on the part of the English Parliament to secure to the Scotch the terms of their National Covenant, and signed by honourable members in St. Margaret's Church, Westminster, September 25, 1643, on the condition of assistance from the Scotch in their great struggle with the king.

Covenant, The National, a solemn engagement on the part of the Scottish nation subscribed to by all ranks of the community, the first signature being appended to it in the Greyfriars' Churchyard, Edinburgh, on February 28, 1638, to maintain the Presbyterian Church and to resist all attempts on the part of Charles I. to foist Episcopacy upon it; it was ratified by the Scottish Parliament in 1640, and subscribed by Charles II. in 1650 and 1651.

Covenanters, a body of strict Presbyterians who held out against the breach of the Solemn League and Covenant.

Covent Garden, properly Convent Garden, as originally the garden of Westminster Abbey, the great fruit, flower, and vegetable market of London; is one of the sights of London early on a summer morning.

Coventry (55), a town in Warwickshire, 18½ m. SE. of Birmingham; famous for the manufacture of ribbons and watches, and recently the chief seat of the manufacture of bicycles and tricycles; in the old streets are some quaint old houses; there are some very fine churches and a number of charitable institutions.

Coventry, Sir John, a member of the Long Parliament; when, as a member of Parliament in Charles II.'s reign, he made reflections on the profligate conduct of the king, he was set upon by bullies, who slit his nose to the bone; a deed which led to the passing of the Coventry Act, which makes cutting and maiming a capital offence (1640-1682).

Coverdale, Miles, translator of the English Bible, born in Yorkshire; his translation was the first issued under royal sanction, being dedicated to Henry VIII.; done at the instance of Thomas Cromwell, and brought out in 1535, and executed with a view to secure the favour of the authorities in Church and State, displaying a timid hesitancy unworthy of a manly faith in the truth; both he and his translation nevertheless were subjected to persecution, 2500 copies of the latter, printed in Paris, having been seized by the Inquisition and committed to the flames (1487-1568).

Coverley, Sir Roger de, member of the club under whose auspices the Spectator is professedly edited; represents an English squire of Queen Anne's reign.

Cowell, John, an English lawyer, author of "Institutes of the Laws of England" and of a law dictionary burnt by the common hangman for matter in it derogatory to the royal authority; d. 1611.

Cowen, Frederick Hymen, a popular English composer, born in Kingston, Jamaica; his works consist of symphonies, cantatas, oratories, as well as songs, duets, &c.; is conductor of the Manchester Subscription Concerts in succession to Sir Charles Hallé; b. 1852.

Cowes, a watering-place in the N. of the Isle of Wight, separated by the estuary of Medina into E. and W.; engaged in yacht-building, and the head-quarters of the Royal Yacht Club.

Cowley, Abraham, poet and essayist, born in London; a contemporary of Milton, whom he at one time outshone, but has now fallen into neglect; he was an ardent royalist, and catered to the taste of the court, which, however, brought him no preferment at the Restoration; he was a master of prose, and specially excelled in letter-writing; he does not seem to have added much to the literature of England, except as an essayist, and in this capacity has been placed at the head of those who cultivated that clear, easy, and natural style which culminated in Addison (1618-1667).

Cowley, Henry Wellesley, Earl, an eminent diplomatist, brother of the Duke of Wellington; served as a diplomatist in Vienna, Constantinople, and Switzerland, and was ambassador to France from 1852 to 1867 (1804-1884).

Cowper, William, a popular English poet, born at Great Berkhampstead, Hertford, of noble lineage; lost his mother at six, and cherished the memory of her all his days; of a timid, sensitive nature, suffered acutely from harsh usage at school; read extensively in the classics; trained for and called to the bar; was appointed at 32 a clerk to the House of Lords; qualifying for the duties of the appointment proved too much for him, and he became insane; when he recovered, he retired from the world to Huntingdon beside a brother, where he formed an intimacy with a family of the name of Unwin, a clergyman in the place; on Mr. Unwin's death he removed with the family to Olney, in Buckinghamshire, where he lived as a recluse and associated with the Rev. John Newton and Mrs. Unwin; shortly after he fell insane again, and continued so for two years; on his recovery he took to gardening and composing poems, his first the "Olney Hymns," the melancholy being charmed away by the conversation of a Lady Austin, who came to live in the neighbourhood; it was she who suggested his greatest poem, the "Task"; then followed other works, change of scene and associates, the death of Mrs. Unwin, and the gathering of a darker and darker cloud, till he passed away peacefully; it is interesting to note that it is to this period his "Lines to Mary Unwin" and his "Mother's Picture" belong (1731-1800).

Cox, David, an eminent landscape painter, rated by some next to Turner, born at Birmingham; began his art as a scene-painter; painted as a landscapist first in water-colour, then in oil; many of his best works are scenes in N. Wales; his works have risen in esteem and value; an ambition of his was to get £100 for a picture, and one he got only £20 for brought £3602 (1793-1830).

Cox, Sir George, an English mythologist, specially distinguished for resolving the several myths of Greece and the world into idealisations of solar phenomena; he has written on other subjects, all of interest, and is engaged with W. T. Brande on a "Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art"; b. 1827.

Coxcie, Michael, a celebrated Flemish painter, born at Mechlin (1497-1592).

Coxe, Henry Octavius, librarian, became assistant-librarian of the Bodleian Library, Oxford, in 1838, and ultimately head-librarian in 1860; under his direction the catalogue, consisting of 720 folio volumes, was completed; held this post till his death; has edited several works of value; is one of Dean Burgon's "Twelve Good Men" (1811-1881).

Coxe, William, a historical writer, heavy but painstaking, born in London; wrote "History of the House of Austria" and the "Memoirs of Marlborough," and on "Sir Robert Walpole and the Pelham Administrations" (1747-1828).

Coxwell, a celebrated English aëronaut; bred a dentist; took to ballooning; made 700 ascents; reached with Glaisher an elevation of 7 m.; b. 1819.

Cozens, John Robert, a landscape painter, a natural son of Peter the Great; pronounced by Constable the greatest genius that ever touched landscape, and from him Turner confessed he had learned more than from any other landscapist; his mind gave way at last, and he died insane (1752-1801).

Crabbe, George, an English poet, born at Aldborough, in Suffolk; began life as apprentice to an apothecary with a view to the practice of medicine, but having poetic tastes, he gave up medicine for literature, and started for London with a capital of three pounds; his first productions in this line not meeting with acceptance, he was plunged in want; appealing in vain for assistance in his distress, he fell in with Burke, who liberally helped him and procured him high patronage, under which he took orders and obtained the living of Trowbridge, which he held for life, and he was now in circumstances to pursue his bent; his principal poems are "The Library," "The Village," "The Parish Register," "The Borough," and the "Tales of the Hall," all, particularly the earlier ones, instinct with interest in the lives of the poor, "the sacrifices, temptations, loves, and crimes of humble life," described with the most "unrelenting" realism; the author in Byron's esteem, "though Nature's sternest painter, yet the best" (1754-1832).

Cracow (75), a city in Galicia, the old capital of Poland; where the old Polish kings were buried, and the cathedral of which contains the graves of the most illustrious of the heroes of the country and Thorwaldsen's statue of Christ; a large proportion of the inhabitants are Jews.

Cradle Mountain, a mountain in the W. of Tasmania.

Craig, John, a Scottish Reformer, educated at St. Andrews, and originally a Dominican monk; had been converted to Protestantism by study of Calvin's "Institutes," been doomed to the stake by the Inquisition, but had escaped; the coadjutor in Edinburgh of Knox, and his successor in his work, and left a confession and catechism (1512-1580).

Craig, Sir Thomas, an eminent Scottish lawyer, author of a treatise on the "Jus Feudale," which has often been reprinted, as well as three others in Latin of less note; wrote in Latin verse a poem on Queen Mary's marriage to Darnley (1538-1608).

Craigenputtock, a craig or whinstone hill of the puttocks (small hawks), "a high moorland farm on the watershed between Dumfriesshire and Galloway, 10 m. from Dumfries," the property for generations of a family of Welshes, and eventually that of their heiress, Jane Welsh Carlyle, "the loneliest spot in all the British dominions," which the Carlyles made their dwelling-house in 1828, where they remained for seven years, and where "Sartor" was written. "It is certain," Carlyle says of it long after, "that for living and thinking in I have never since found in the world a place so favourable.... How blessed," he exclaims, "might poor mortals be in the straitest circumstances if their wisdom and fidelity to heaven and to one another were adequately great!"

Craik, George Little, an English author, born in Fife, educated at St. Andrews; settled early in London as a littérateur; was associated with Charles Knight in his popular literary undertakings; was author of the "Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties," and the "History of English Literature and Learning"; edited "Pictorial History of England," contributed to "Penny Cyclopædia," and became professor of English Literature, Queen's College, Belfast (1799-1866).

Craik, Mrs., née Mulock, born at Stoke-upon-Trent; authoress of "John Halifax, Gentleman," her chief work, which has had, and maintains, a wide popularity; married in 1865 a nephew and namesake of the preceding, a partner of the publishing house of Macmillan & Co.; wrote for the magazines, besides some 14 more novels (1826-1887).

Crail, a little old-fashioned town near the East Neuk of Fife, where James Sharp was minister; a decayed fishing-place, now a summer resort.

Cramer, Johann Baptist, a distinguished German composer and pianist (1771-1858).

Cranach, Lucas, a celebrated German painter, born at Kronach, in the bishopric of Bamberg; was patronised by Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony, whom he accompanied in 1493 to the Holy Land; was engraver as well as painter, skilled in portraiture as well as in historical scenes; was intimately associated with the German reformers Luther and Melanchthon, whose portraits he painted among others; the works of his that remain are chiefly altar-pieces; his chief work is the "Crucifixion" in Weimar, where he died (1472-1553).

Crane, Ichabod, a tall, lean, lank, Yankee schoolmaster in Irving's "Legend of Sleepy Hollow."

Crane, Walter, poet and painter; has published various illustrated books and poems illustrated by himself, and is an authority on decorative art; b. 1845.

Cranmer, Thomas, archbishop of Canterbury, born in Nottinghamshire; educated at Jesus College, Cambridge; recommended himself to Henry VIII. by favouring his divorce, writing in defence of it, and pleading for it before the Pope, the latter in vain, as it proved; on his return was elevated to the archbishopric, in which capacity he proved a zealous promoter of the Reformation, by having the Bible translated and circulated, and by the suppression of monasteries; pronounced sentence of divorce of Catharine, and confirmed the king's marriage with Anne Boleyn; by these and other compliances he kept the favour of Henry, but on the accession of Mary he was committed to the Tower and persuaded to recant, and even signed a recantation, but on being called to recant in public, and refusing to do so, he was dragged to the stake, thrust his right hand into the flames, and exclaimed, "Oh, this unworthy hand" (1489-1566).

Crannoge, a species of lake-dwelling and stronghold, of which remains are found in Scotland and Ireland.

Crapaud, Jean, a nickname of the Frenchmen.

Crashaw, Richard, a minor poet, born in London; bred for the English Church; went to Paris, where he became a Roman Catholic; fell into pecuniary difficulties, but was befriended by Cowley and recommended to a post; was an imitator of George Herbert, and his poems were of the same class, but more fantastical; his principal poems were "Steps to the Temple" and the "Delights of the Muses"; both Milton and Pope are indebted to him (1616-1650).

Crassus, Lucius Licinius, the greatest Roman orator of his day, became consul 55 B.C.; during his consulship a law was passed requiring all but citizens to leave Rome, an edict which provoked the Social War (140-91 B.C.).

Crassus, Marcus Licinius, the triumvir with Pompey and Cæsar; was avaricious, and amassed great wealth; appointed to the province of Syria, provoked out of cupidity war with the Parthians, in which he was treacherously slain; Orodes, the king, cut off his head, and poured melted gold into his mouth, saying as he did so, "Now sate thyself with the metal of which thou wert so greedy when alive" (115-53 B.C.).

Crates, a Greek cynic philosopher, disciple of Diogenes; 4th century B.C.

Cratinus, a Greek comic poet, born at Athens; limited the actors in a piece to three, and the first to introduce into the drama attacks on public men, wrote also satires on vice (519-424 B.C.).

Cratippus, a Peripatetic philosopher of Mytilene, contemporary of Pompey and Cicero; soothed the sunken spirit of the former after the defeat at Pharsalia with the consolations of philosophy.

Cratylus, a dialogue of Plato's on the connection between language and thought.

Crawford, Marion, a novelist, born in Tuscany, of American origin, son of the succeeding; spent a good deal of his early years in India, and now lives partly in New York and partly in Italy; his works, which are numerous, are chiefly novels, his first "Mr. Isaacs" (1882), original and striking; an able writer, and a scholarly; b. 1854.

Crawford, Thomas, an American sculptor, studied at Rome under Thorwaldsen; his "Orpheus in Search of Eurydice" brought him into notice, and was followed by an array of works of eminent merit; died in London from a tumour on the brain, after being struck with blindness (1814-1857).

Crawford and Balcarres, Earl of, better known as Lord Lindsay, and as the author of "Letters from the Holy Land," "Progression by Antagonism," and "Sketches of the History of Christian Art"; died at Florence, and was entombed at Dunecht, whence his body was abstracted and found again in a wood near by after a seven months' search (1812-1880).

Crayer, Caspar de, a celebrated Flemish painter, born at Antwerp; pictures and altar-pieces by him are to be seen in Brussels and Ghent (1582-1669).

Creakle, Mr., a bullying schoolmaster in "David Copperfield."

Creasy, Sir Edward, chief-justice of Ceylon, author of "The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World," "Rise and Progress of the British Constitution," &c. (1812-1878).

Creatin, a substance found in the muscles of vertebrate animals, but never in invertebrate.

Crébillon, a French dramatist, born at Dijon, bred to the law, devoted to literature and the composition of tragedies, of which he produced several, mostly on classical subjects, such as "Atreus and Thyestes," "Electra," of unequal merit, though at times of great power; he ranked next Voltaire among the dramatists of the time (1674-1762).

Crécy, a French village, 12 m. NE. of Abbeville, where Edward III., with 30,000, defeated the French with 68,000, and destroyed the flower of the chivalry of France, Aug. 26, 1346.

Crédit Foncier, a system of credit originating in France on the security of land, whereby the loan is repayable so that principal and interest are extinguished at the same time.

Creech, William, an Edinburgh bookseller, for 40 years the chief publisher in the city; published the first Edinburgh edition of Burns's poems (1745-1815).

Creeks, a tribe of American Indians settled in Indian territory.

Creighton, Mandell, bishop of London, born at Carlisle; previously bishop of Peterborough; has written on Simon de Montfort, on Wolsey, and on the Tudors and the Reformation, but his great work is the "History of the Papacy from the Great Schism to the Sack of Rome," a work of great value; b. 1843.

Crémieux, a French advocate and politician, born at Nîmes, of Jewish birth; a member of the Provisional Government of 1848, and of the National Defence in 1870; took a deep interest in the destiny of his race (1796-1880).

Cremona, old town on the Po, in Lombardy, 46 m. SE. of Milan; interesting for its churches, with their paintings and frescoes; noted at one time for the manufacture of violins.

Cremorne (37), gardens in Chelsea; a popular place of amusement, now closed.

Creole State, Louisiana, U.S.

Crescent City, New Orleans, U.S., as originally occupying a convex bend of the Mississippi.

Crescentini, a celebrated Italian soprano (1769-1846).

Crescentius, a patrician of Rome who, in the 10th century, sought to destroy the imperial power and restore the republic; on this he was defeated by Otho III., to whom he surrendered on promise of safety, but who hanged and beheaded him; Stephano, his widow, avenged this treachery by accepting Otho as her lover, and then poisoning him.

Crespi, Giuseppe, an Italian painter; copied the works of Correggio, Caracci, and other masters (1665-1747).

Creswell, Sir Creswell, judge, born in Newcastle; represented Liverpool in Parliament; was raised to the bench by Peel, and, on the establishment of the Divorce Court, was in 1858 named first judge (1794-1863).

Creswick, Thomas, an English landscape painter, born in Sheffield; simple, pleasantly-suggestive, and faithfully-painted scenes from nature were the subjects of his art; was employed a good deal in book illustrations (1811-1869).

Crete or Candia (295), a mountainous island in the Mediterranean, 160 m. long and from 7 to 30 m. broad; in nominal subjection to Turkey after 1669, it was in perpetual revolt. The rising of 1895 led to the intervention of the great powers of Europe, and the Turkish troops having been withdrawn in 1898 under pressure from Great Britain, Russia, France, and Italy, Prince George of Greece was appointed High Commissioner, ruling on behalf of these powers. Turkey still retains the nominal suzerainty.

Cretinism, a disease prevalent in valleys as those of the Alps, characterised by mental imbecility, and associated with abnormal and arrested physical development.

Creusa, a wife of Æneas, fell behind her husband, lost her way in escaping from Troy, and perished.

Creusot, Le (18), a town in the dep. Saône-et-Loire, near Autun, which owes its importance to the large iron-works established there; is a district rich in coal and iron.

Creuzer, a learned German philologist, born at Marburg; became professor of Ancient History and Philology at Heidelberg; his chief work, and one by which he is most widely known, "Symbolik und Mythologie der Alten Völker, besonders der Griechen," "Symbolism and Mythology of Ancient Peoples, especially the Greeks"; left an autobiography (1771-1858).

Crewe (29), a town in Cheshire, 43 m. SE. of Liverpool, a great railway junction, and where the London and North-Western Railway Company have their works.

Crichton, James, surnamed The Admirable, a Scotchman of gentle, even noble birth, educated at St. Andrews, had George Buchanan for tutor; early developed the most extraordinary gifts of both body and mind; travelled to Paris, Rome, Venice, Milan, and Mantua; astonished every one by his strength and skill as an athlete, and his dexterity and agility in debate; at Mantua he became tutor to the son of the Duke, when one night he was attacked in the streets by a band of masked men, whom he overcame by his skill, recognised his pupil among them, and presented to him his sword, upon which, it is said, the young man immediately ran him through with it (1560-1585).

Crieff (5), a town in Perthshire, at the foot of the Grampians, 18 m. W. of Perth, amid exquisite scenery; has a climate favourable for invalids.

Crillon, a French military captain, born at Mars, in Provence; distinguished himself through five reigns, those of Henry II., Francis II., Charles IX., Henry III., and Henry IV., of the last of whom he became companion in arms, who designated him Le brave des braves, and who wrote to him this famous note after the victory of Arques: "Where were you, brave Crillon? we have conquered, and you were not there." (1541-1615).

Crimea (250), a peninsula in the S. of Russia, almost surrounded by the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, being connected with the mainland by the narrow isthmus of Perekop; has a bold and precipitous coast 650 m. in length; is barren in the N., but fertile and fruitful in the S.; population chiefly Russians and Tartars.

Crimean War, a war carried on chiefly in the Crimea, on the part of Turkey aided by Britain and France, in which Sardinia eventually joined them, against the encroachments of Russia in the E., and which was proclaimed against Russia, March 24, 1854, and ended by the fall of Sebastopol, September 8, 1855, the treaty of peace following having been signed at Paris, March 1856.

Crinan Canal, a canal for vessels of light burden, 9 m. long, from Loch Fyne, in Argyllshire, constructed to avoid sailing round the Mull of Kintyre, thereby saving a distance of 115 m.

Crispi, Francesco, an Italian statesman, born in Sicily; co-operated with Garibaldi in the Sicilian Revolution, and since active as a member of the Government in the kingdom of Italy; b. 1819.

Crispin, the patron saint of shoemakers, of noble birth, who with his brother had to flee from persecution in Rome to Gaul, where they settled at Soissons; preached to the people and supported themselves by shoemaking; they finally suffered martyrdom in 287. Festival, Oct. 25.

Critias, a pupil of Socrates, who profited so little by his master's teaching that he became the most conspicuous for his cruelty and rapacity of all the thirty tyrants set up in Athens by the Spartans (450-402 B.C.).

Criton, a rich Athenian, friend and disciple of Socrates; supported him by his fortune, but could not persuade him to leave the prison, though he had procured the means of escape.

Croa`tia and Slavonia (2,201), a Hungarian crownland, lying between the Drave and Save, tributaries of the Danube, and stretching westward to the Adriatic. It is half as large as Ireland, wooded and mountainous, with marshy districts along the river courses. The soil is fertile, growing cereals, fibres, tobacco, and grapes; silkworms and bees are a source of wealth; horses, cattle, and swine are raised in large numbers. The province is poor in minerals, and lacks a harbour. The people are Slavs, of Roman Catholic faith; backward in education, but showing signs of progress.

Crockett, Samuel Rutherford, novelist, born near New Galloway, Kirkcudbright; bred for the Church, and for some time Free Church minister at Penicuik, Midlothian, a charge he resigned in 1895, having previously published a volume of sketches entitled "The Stickit Minister," which was so received as to induce him to devote himself to literature, as he has since done with more or less success; b. 1859.

Croesus, the last of the kings of Lydia, in the 6th century B.C.; celebrated for his wealth, so that his name became a synonym for a man overwhelmed by the favours of fortune; being visited by Solon, he asked him one day if he knew any one happier than he was, when the sage answered, "No man can be counted happy till after death." Of the truth of this Croesus had ere long experience; being condemned to death by Cyrus, who had defeated him and condemned him to be burnt, and about to be led to the burning pile, he called out thrice over the name of Solon; when Cyrus, having learned the reason, moved with pity, ordered his release, retained him among his counsellors, and commended him when dying to the care of his son.