I

Iachimo, an arch-villain in Shakespeare's "Cymbeline," who attempts to violate the chastity of Imogen.

Iachus, the son of Zeus and Demeter, and the solemn name of Bacchus in the Eleusinian Mysteries.

Iago, a cool, selfish, malignant, subtle, evil-scheming knave in "Othello," his "ancient" or ensign, who poisoned his mind against Desdemona.

Iamblichus, a Neo-Platonic philosopher of the 4th century, in the time of Constantine, struggled, as it proved, in vain for the revival of Greek philosophy, in the hope of thereby stemming the advance of Christianity.

Iambus, a metrical foot, consisting of two syllables, of which the first is short and the second long, or in which the stress is on the second.

Iapetos, in the Greek mythology a Titan, father of Atlas, Prometheus, and Epimetheus, as the Greeks fabled the ancestor of the human race.

Iberia, the ancient and still poetic name of Spain; anciently also a territory inhabited by an agricultural population between the Black Sea and the Caspian, now called Georgia.

Ibis, the Nile bird, regarded as an avatar of deity, and held sacred by the Egyptians; it did not breed in Egypt, and was supposed to be of mystic origin; it arrives in Egypt when the Nile begins to rise.

Ibrahim Bey, chief of the Mamelukes of Egypt at the time of Bonaparte's expedition to Egypt in 1798 (1789-1816).

Ibrahim Pasha, viceroy of Egypt, son and successor of Mehemet-Ali; appointed generalissimo of the Egyptian army, remodelled it after the French fashion; was leader of the Turks against the Greeks; gained several victories over them in 1828, but was obliged to retire; overran and conquered Syria from the Sultan, but was forced by the Powers to surrender his conquest and restore it; he was Viceroy of Egypt only for a single year, and died at Cairo (1789-1848).

Ibsen, Henrik, Norwegian dramatist and poet, born at Skein, in Norway; bred to medicine; is author of a succession of plays of a new type, commencing with "Catalina," a poor attempt, followed by "Doll's House," "Ghosts," "Pillars of Society," and "Brand," deemed his masterpiece, besides others; his characters are vividly drawn as if from life; he is a psychologist, and his productions have all more or less a social bearing; b. 1828.

Ibycus, a Greek lyric poet, who was murdered by robbers, and who appealed to a flock of cranes that flew past before he died to avenge his death, and that proved the means of the discovery of the murderers.

Icarus, son of Dædalus (q. v.), who, flying with his father from Crete on wax-fastened wings, soared so high that the sun melted the wax and he dropped into the sea, giving name to that part of it.

Ice blink, the name given to a white light seen on the horizon, due to reflection from a field of ice immediately beyond.

Iceland (71), a volcanic island larger by a third than Scotland, lying just S. of the polar circle, between Greenland and Norway, distant 250 m. from the former and 500 from the latter; consists of a plateau 2000 ft. high, sometimes sloping to the sea, sometimes ending in sheer precipices, from which rise numerous snow-clad volcanoes, some, like Hecla, still active. "A wild land of barrenness and lava," Carlyle characterises it, "swallowed up many months of the year in black tempests, yet with a wild gleaming beauty in summer time, towering up there stern and grim, with its snow jokuls and roaring geysers, and horrid volcanic chasms, like the waste chaotic battlefield of frost and fire." The interior comprises lava and sand tracts, and ice-fields, but outside these are river valleys and lake districts affording pasturage, and arable land capable of producing root crops. The climate is changeable, mild for the latitude, but somewhat colder than Scotland. There are few trees, and these small; cranberries grow among the heather, and Iceland moss is a plentiful article of food. The island exports sheep and ponies; the fisheries are important, including cod, seals, and whales; sulphur and coal are found; the hot springs are famous, especially the Great Geyser, near Hecla. Discovered by Irishmen and colonised by Norwegians in the 9th century, Iceland passed over to the Danes in 1388, who granted it home rule in 1893. The religion has been Protestant since 1550; its elementary education is excellent. Reykjavik (3) is the capital; two towns have 500 inhabitants each; the rest of the population is scattered in isolated farms; stock-raising and fishing are the principal industries, and the manufacture of homespun for their own use.

Ich dien (I serve), the motto of the Black Prince, adopted from John of Bohemia, and since then that of the English Prince of Wales.

Ichneumon, an animal of the weasel tribe, worshipped in Egypt from its destroying the eggs of noxious reptiles, and of the crocodile in particular.

Ichor, an ethereal fluid presumed to supply the place of blood in the veins of the Greek gods.

Ichthyosaurus (lit. a fish-reptile), an extinct marine reptile in the shape of a fish, its limbs paddles, and with a long lizard-like tail.

Iconium, the capital of Lycaonia, in Asia Minor, a flourishing city in St. Paul's time, who planted a church there, and of importance in the time of the Crusades; is now named Konieh.

Iconoclasts (i. e. breakers of images), the name given to a sect who, in the 8th century, opposed to the presence of images in churches and the worship paid to them, set about the demolition of them as savouring of idolatry, and even in 730 obtained a papal decree or condemnation of the practice; the enthusiasm died out in the next century, but the effect of it was felt in a controversy, which led to the separation of the Church of the East from that of the West.

Ictinus, great Greek architect of the 5th century B.C., a contemporary of Pericles, designer of temples at Bussæ and Eleusis, and joint-designer with Callicrates of the world's one perfect building, the Parthenon, at Athens (437 B.C.).

Ida, the name of two mountains in the East, one in Crete, on which Zeus was brought up in a cave near it, and one in Asia Minor, near Troy, "Woody Ida," the scene of the rape of Ganymedes and of the judgment of Paris, also a seat of Cybele worship.

Idaho (88), one of the north-western States of the American Union, surrounded by Washington and Oregon in the W., Nevada and Utah in the S., Wyoming in the E., and Montana, from which it is separated by a branch of the Rocky Mountains, in the NE., the short northern boundary touches Canada; the country is traversed by lofty mountain ranges cut up into deep river valleys and cañons, is extremely rugged in its northern parts, and chiefly useful for cattle-raising; there is a plateau in the centre, some arid prairie land in the S., and lake districts in the N. and in the SE.; grain farming is restricted to fringes along the river banks; the Snake River flows through the whole S.; silver, lead, gold, and copper mines are wrought successfully, and coal is found; the State was admitted to the Union in 1890; a fifth of the population are Mormons; there are still 4000 Indians. Boisé City (2) is the capital.

Iddesleigh, Earl Of, Sir Stafford Northcote, Conservative financier and statesman, born in London of old Devonshire stock; educated at Oxford; became private secretary to Mr. Gladstone in 1842, and five years later was called to the bar; entering Parliament in 1885, he sat in succession for Dudley, for Stamford, and for North Devon; under Lord Derby he was Financial Secretary to the Treasury in 1859, and President of the Board of Trade in 1866; under Disraeli he was at the India Office in 1868, and Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1874; he succeeded Disraeli in the leadership of the Commons, and was raised to the peerage in 1885; was successively First Lord of the Treasury and Foreign Secretary under Lord Salisbury; in 1871 Mr. Gladstone appointed him Commissioner in the settlement of the Alabama claim, and he was elected Lord Hector of Edinburgh University in 1883; resigning from the Foreign Office in January 1887, he died suddenly a few days later at the Prime Minister's residence (1818-1887).

Idealism, that view of the universe which, in opposition to Materialism (q. v.), refers everything to and derives everything from a spiritual root; is Subjective if traced no further back than the ego, and Objective if traced back to the non-ego likewise, its counterpart, or other, in the objective world. Idealism in art is art more or less at work in the region of the ideal in comparative disregard of the actual.

Ideler, Christian Ludwig, a German astronomer, born in Prussia; an authority on chronology, on which he wrote a handbook, as also a work on the reckoning of time among the Chinese (1766-1846).

Identical Note, a term in diplomacy to denote terms agreed upon by two Powers to coerce a third.

Ides, the name given in the Roman calendar to certain days that divide the month; in March, May, July, and October they fall on the 15th, in the rest on the 13th.

Idolatry, worship paid to a mere symbol of the divine while the heart is dead to all sense of that which it symbolises; a species of offence against the Most High, of which many are flagrantly guilty who affect to regard with pity the worshipper of idols of wood or stone. "Idolatry," says Buskin, apropos of Carlyle's well-known doctrine, "is summed up in the one broad wickedness of refusing to worship Force and resolving to worship No-Force; denying the Almighty, and bowing down to four-and-twopence with a stamp on it."

Idomeneus, king of Crete, grandson of Minos, and a hero of the Greeks in the war with Troy.

Idris, a giant, prince, and astronomer of Welsh tradition, whose rock-hewn chair on the summit of Cader Idris was supposed to mete out to the bard who spent a night upon it death, madness, or poetic inspiration.

Idumæa. See Edom.

Iduna, a Scandinavian goddess who kept a box of golden apples which the gods tasted when they wished to renew their youth; she was carried off one day, but being sent for by the gods, came back changed into a falcon.

Idyll, a poem in celebration of everyday life or life in everyday costume amid natural, often pastoral and even romantic, and at times tragic surroundings.

If, an islet in the Gulf of Marseilles, with a castle built by Francis I., and afterwards used as a State prison.

Iggdrasil the Tree of Existence, as conceived of by the Norse, and reflecting the Norse idea of the universe, "has its roots deep down in the kingdoms of Hela, or Death; its trunk reaches up heaven-high, and spreads its boughs over the whole universe. At the foot of it, in the Death-Kingdom, sit the Three Nornas (q. v.) watering its roots from the sacred Well."

Ignatieff, Nicholas, Russian general and diplomatist, born at St. Petersburg; was ambassador at Pekin in 1859, and at Constantinople in 1864, and secured at both posts important concessions to Russia; he is a zealous Panslavist and Anti-Semite, too much so to carry with him the support of the country; b. 1832.

Ignatius, Father, the name by which the Rev. Joseph Lyne is known, born in London, educated at St. Paul's School and Glenalmond; commenced a movement to introduce monasticism into the Church of England, and built a monastery for monks and nuns near Llanthony Abbey, the members of which follow the rule and wear the garb of the Order of St. Benedict; b. 1837.

Ignatius, St., surnamed Theophoros, an Apostolic Father of the Church, Bishop of Antioch; died a martyr at Rome about 115, by exposure to wild beasts, in the amphitheatre; is represented in Christian art as accompanied by lions, or exposed to them chained; left epistles which, if genuine as we have them, establish prelacy as the order of government in the primitive Church, and lay especial stress on the twofold nature of Christ.

Ignatius Loyola. See Loyola.

Ignorantines, a Jesuit association in the Roman Catholic Church founded in 1724, who give instruction to poor children gratis, with the object of winning them over to the Catholic faith.

Ihre, Johan, a learned Swedish philologist, born at Lund, of Scotch descent; was 40 years professor of Rhetoric and Political Economy at Upsala, and was the founder of Swedish philology (1707-1780).

Ile de France, the province of France of which Paris is the capital; was also formerly the name of Mauritius.

Ile du Diable, an island off the coast of French Guiana, where Captain Dreyfus was confined.

Ilfracombe, a popular watering-place on the coast of N. Devon, in the Bristol Channel; once a considerable place.

Iliad, the great epic poem of Homer, consisting of 24 books, the subject of which is the "wrath of Achilles" (q. v.), and the events which followed during the last year of the ten years' Trojan War, so called from Ilion, one of the names of Troy. See Ilium.

Ilithyia, the Greek goddess who presided over the travail of woman at childbirth, promoting or retarding the birth as the Fates might ordain.

Ilium, Troy (q. v.), so called from Ilus, the son of Tros, who founded the city.

Illinois (3,826), an American State as large as England and Wales; has the Mississippi for its western, the Ohio for its southern boundary, with Wisconsin and Lake Michigan in the N. and Indiana on the E.; fourth in population, seventeenth in area; "the Prairie State" is level, well watered, and extremely fertile; has a climate subject to extremes, but, except in the swamps, healthy. It produces enormous quantities of wheat, besides other cereals, of tobacco and temperate fruits. Flour-milling, pork-packing, and distilling are the chief industries. The most extensive coal-deposits in America are in this State; with navigable rivers on its borders, and traversing it Lake Michigan, a great canal, and the largest railway system in the Union, it is admirably situated for commercial development; originally acquired by Britain from the French, who entered it from Canada; it was ceded to the Americans in 1783, and admitted to the Union 1818; the State spends $12,000,000 annually on education, which is compulsory, and has a large and wealthy scientific and agricultural university at Urbana. Springfield (25) is the capital; but Chicago (1,100) is the largest city.

Illuminated Doctor, a title bestowed on Raymond Lully (q. v.).

Illuminati, a class or fraternity of people who affect superior enlightenment, particularly on religious and social matters, tending of late in the one to Deism, and in the other to Republicanism, in France forming a body of materialists, and in Germany a body of idealists; the former to the disparagement of ideas, and the latter to the disparagement of reason, and both hostile to the Church.

Illumination, The, the name given to the "advanced" thinking class who pride themselves in their emancipation from all authority in spiritual matters, the assumption of which they regard as an outrage not only against the right of private judgment, but the very constitution of man, which, they argue, is violated when respect is not before all paid to individual conviction. See Aufklärung.

Illyria, the name anciently given to a broad stretch of mountainous country of varying extent lying E. of the Adriatic Sea. The Illyrians were the last Balkan people to be civilised; becoming a Roman province 35 B.C., Illyria furnished several emperors, among them the notorious Diocletian. Constantine extended the province to include all the country S. of the Danube; at the division of the empire, Greece and Macedonia went to the East, the rest to the West; the name was revived by Napoleon, but has since been dropped.

Ilus, a legendary king of Troy, the grandson of Dardanus, and the founder of Ilium.

Image Worship in the Christian Church is reverence, as distinct from the supreme adoration of the Deity, paid to the crucifix and to pictures, images, or statues of saints and martyrs, and understood really as offered through these to the personages whom they represent. The practice, unknown in apostolic or sub-apostolic times, was prevalent in the 4th century, provoked by its excesses a severe reaction in the 8th century, but carefully defined by the second Council of Nice (787), has continued since both in the Greek and Roman communion; there is still controversy as to its propriety in the Anglican Church; the Lutherans still use the crucifix freely, but other Protestant Churches have entirely repudiated the practice. See Iconoclasts.

Imaginary Conversations, a remarkable work by Landor, in 6 vols., much appreciated by many.

Imagination, the name appropriate to the highest faculty of man, and defined by Ruskin as "mental creation," in the exercise of which the human being discharges his highest function as a responsible being, "the defect of which on common minds it is the main use," says Ruskin, "of works of fiction, and of the drama, as far as possible, to supply."

Imâm is the title of the officer who leads the devotions in Mohammedan mosques, and in Turkey conducts marriage and funeral services, as well as performs the ceremonies connected with circumcision; the office was filled and the title borne by Mahomet, hence it sometimes signifies head of the faith, and is so applied to the Sultan of Turkey; good Mohammedans believe in the future advent of an Imâm—the hidden Imâm—who shall be greater than the Prophet himself.

Imaus, a name the ancients gave to any large mountain chain in Asia, more particularly one bordering on India, or looking down upon it, as the home of the Aryans.

Imitation of Christ, a book of pious reflections, unique in its kind, and much esteemed by piously thoughtful people; ascribed to Thomas à Kempis (q. v.).

Immaculate Conception, the doctrine held by the Roman Catholic Church that the Virgin Mary was conceived and born without taint of sin; first distinctly propounded in the 12th century, at which time a festival was introduced in celebration of it, and which became matter of dispute in the 14th century, and it was only in 1854 that it became by a bull an article of the Catholic faith.

Immanence, the idea that the creative intelligence which made, with the regulative intelligence which governs, the universe, is inherent in it and pervades it.

Immensities, Centre of, an expression of Carlyle's to signify that wherever any one is, he is in touch with the whole universe of being, and is, if he knew it, as near the heart of it there as anywhere else he can be.

Immensity, The Temple of, the universe as felt to be in every corner of it a temple consecrated to worship in with wonder and awe.

Immermann, Karl Leberecht, German novelist and dramatist, born at Magdeburg; fought at Waterloo; entered the public service of Prussia and obtained an appointment at Düsseldorf, where he died; his fame rests upon his miscellaneous tales and satirical novels, such as "Münchausen"; his dramas consisted of both tragedies and comedies (1796-1840).

Immortality, the doctrine of the continued existence of the soul of each individual after death, a doctrine the belief of which is, in one form or another, common to most religious systems; even to those which contemplate absorption in the Deity as the final goal of existence, as is evident from the prevalence in them of the doctrine of transmigration or reincarnation.

Immortals, a regiment of 10,000 foot soldiers who formed the bodyguard of the ancient Persian kings; the name given to the 40 members of the French Academy.

Imogen, the daughter of Cymbeline, in Shakespeare's play of the name, a perfect female character, pronounced "the most tender and the most artless of all Shakespeare's women."

Imo`la (12), a town in Italy, 10 m. N. of Faenza, with some fine palaces; manufactures leather, glass, silk, &c.

Impanation, a name employed to denote the union of the body of Christ with the bread of the Eucharist.

Impenetrability, the name given to that quality of matter whereby two bodies cannot occupy the same space at the same time.

Imperative, The Categorical. See Categorical.

Imperial Federation, name given to a scheme for uniting more closely together the several interests of the British Empire.

Imperial Institute, South Kensington, founded by the exertions of the Prince of Wales in 1887 to commemorate Queen Victoria's jubilee, was opened by her in 1893; was intended to include a complete collection of the products of the British Empire, a grand commercial intelligence bureau, and a school of modern Oriental languages; the government to be carried on by a chartered body, whose form of constitution was granted by a royal warrant of date April 21, 1891; the idea is for the present abandoned, and the premises appropriated as henceforth the seat of the London University.

Imperialism, the name given by English politicians to the policy which aims at the consolidation into one empire of all the colonies and dependencies along with the mother-country.

Impetigo, a cutaneous eruption, generally in clusters, of yellow-scaled pustules, which grow thicker and larger; common among children ill fed and ill cared for.

Impey, Sir Elijah, Indian judge, born at Hammersmith; educated at Cambridge, and called to the bar in 1756; was sent out to Bengal as first Chief-Justice in 1774; he supported Warren Hastings's administration, and presided over the court which sentenced Nuncomar to death for forgery; in the quarrel over Hastings's alleged resignation he decided in favour of the governor; was recalled and impeached for his conduct of the Nuncomar trial in 1783, but was honourably acquitted; resigning in 1789, he sat in Parliament for New Romney till 1796 (1732-1809).

Imponderables, the name given to light, heat, and electricity when they were supposed to be material substances, but without weight.

Impressionism, a term in painting that denotes the principle of a new school originating in France before 1870, and introduced into this country some 10 years later; it is a revolt against traditionalism in art, and aims at reproducing on canvas not what the mind knows or by close study observes is in nature, but the "impression" which eye and mind gather. The influence of the movement has been strong, and promises to be lasting both here and in Germany, and not the least interesting work of the kind has of late years issued from the "Glasgow School" and the "London Impressionists."

Impressment, legalised enforcement of service in the British navy, which has for years been in abeyance, and is not likely to be ever again revived.

Impropriation, the transference of the revenues of a benefice to a layman or lay body to be devoted to spiritual uses.

Imputation, the theological dogma of the transference of guilt or merit from one to another who is descended naturally or spiritually from the same stock as the former, as of Adam's guilt to us by nature or Christ's righteousness to us by faith; although in Scripture the term generally, if not always, denotes the reckoning to a man of the merit or the demerit involved in, not another's doings, but his own, as in a single act of faith or a single act of unbelief, the one viewed as allying him with all that is good, or as a proof of his essential goodness, and the other as allying him with all that is evil, or as a proof of his essential wickedness.

In Cæna Domini (i. e. in the Supper of the Lord), a papal bull promulgated in the Middle Ages, denouncing excommunication against all who dispute the claims of the Church, and the promulgation of which was felt on all hands to be intolerable; the promulgation has been discontinued since 1773.

Inachos, in Greek legend the first king of Argos, son of Oceanus and Tethys.

In-and-in, a term applied to the breeding of animals from the same parentage.

Inca, a king or royal prince of the ancient original people of Peru.

Incandescent Light, or Electric Light, a light produced by a thin strip of a non-conducting body, such as carbon, in a vacuum raised to intense heat by an electric current.

Incarnation, the humanisation of the Divine in the person of Christ, a doctrine vehemently opposed in the early times of the Church by both Jews and Gnostics, by the former as inconsistent with the greatness of God, and by the latter as inconsistent with the inbred depravity of man.

Incense, a fragrance which arises from the burning of certain gums and burnt in connection with sundry religious observances, particularly in the Roman Catholic Church, as an expression of praise presumably well pleasing to God; a practice which Protestants repudiate as without warrant in Scripture.

Inchbald, Elizabeth, actress, dramatist, and novelist, daughter of John Simpson, a Suffolk farmer; came to London at the age of 18, seeking a theatrical engagement; after some adventures she met Joseph Inchbald, an actor of no note, to whom she was married in 1772; shortly afterwards she made her début as Cordelia at Bristol; after seven years in the provinces and nine in London, during which she failed to rise high in her profession, she turned to literature; she wrote and adapted many plays, but the works by which she is remembered are two novels, "A Simple Story" and "Nature and Art" (1753-1821).

Inchcolm, an island in the Firth of Forth, near Aberdour, on the Fife coast, so called as the residence of St. Columba when engaged in the conversion of the Northern Picts; has the remains of an abbey founded by Alexander I.

Inchkeith, an island in the Firth of Forth, in the county of Fife, 2½m. N. of Leith, and about ½ m. long, has a lighthouse with a revolving light, and fortifications to protect the Forth.

Incitatus, the horse of Caligula (q. v.); had a house and a servant to itself, was fed from vessels of gold, admitted to the priesthood, and created a consul of Rome.

Incledon, Charles Benjamin, a celebrated ballad-singer with a fine tenor voice, born in Cornwall (1763-1826).

Incorruptible, The, Robespierre (q. v.), a man not to be seduced to betray his principles or party.

Increment, Unearned, an expression denoting increase in the value of landed property due to increased demand and without any expenditure on the part of the proprietor.

Independence, Declaration of, a declaration made July 4, 1776, by the North American States declaring their independence of Great Britain.

Independence, The War of, the name given to the struggle which the North American colonists maintained against the mother country.

Independence Day, a holiday observed throughout the United States annually on the 4th of July in celebration of the Declaration of Independence in 1776 that day.

Independents or Congregationalists are a Protestant sect deriving both names from their principle of government; repudiating both Episcopacy and Presbyterianism, they hold that every congregation should manage its own affairs, and elect its own officers independent of all authority save that of Christ; they profess to derive all rules of faith and practice from the Scriptures, and are closely akin to Presbyterians in doctrine. Numerous as early as Queen Elizabeth's time, they suffered persecution then; many fled or were banished to Holland, whence the Mayflower conveyed the Pilgrim Fathers to New England in 1620. Regaining ascendency under Cromwell, they again suffered at the Restoration; but political disabilities then imposed have gradually been removed, and now they are the most vigorous Dissenting body in England. The congregations in the English Union (a union for common purposes and mutual help) number 4700, those in the Scottish Union 100.

Index Expurgatorius, a list of books issued by the Church of Rome, which, as hostile to her teaching, are placed under her ban, and are under penalties forbidden to be read. The first list published was by Pope Paul IV. in 1557, and in 1562 the Council of Trent appointed a committee whose special business it should be to draw up a complete list of obnoxious writings, a work which it fell to Paul IV. to finish after the sittings of the Council came to a close in an index issued in 1564.

India (287,223), British dependency, consisting of the great peninsula in the S. of Asia, which has the Bay of Bengal on the E. and the Arabian Sea on the W., and is separated from the mainland by the Hindu-Kush and the Himalaya Mountains; politically the name includes besides the Punjab in the N. and Burma in the E.; the centre of the peninsula is a great plateau called the Deccan, between which and the snow-clad Himalaya stretch the great fertile basins of the Ganges, the Thar Desert, and the arid wastes of the Indus Valley; great varieties of climate are of course met with, but the temperature is prevailingly high, and the monsoons of the Indian Ocean determine the regularity of the rainy season, which occurs from June to October; the country generally is insalubrious; the vegetation is correspondingly varied, but largely tropical; rice, cereal crops, sugar, and tobacco are generally grown; cotton in Bombay and the Central Provinces, opium in the Ganges Valley, jute in Eastern Bengal, and indigo in Behar; coffee and tea are raised by Europeans in the hill country on virgin soil; the chief mineral deposits are extensive coal-fields between the Ganges and the Godavari, the most valuable salt deposits in the world in the Punjab, and deposits of iron, the purest found anywhere, in many parts of the country, which, however, are wrought only by native methods; native manufactures are being largely superseded by European methods, and the young cotton-weaving industry flourishes well; the country is well populated on the whole, with a relative scarcity of big towns; the people belong to many different races, and speak languages representing four distinct stocks; the vast bulk of them are Brahmanists or Hindus; there are many Mohammedans, Buddhists (in Burma), and Parsees (in Bombay); 2¼ millions are Christians, and there are other religions; India has been subject to many conquests; the Aryan, Greek, and Mussulman invasions swept from the NW.; the Portuguese obtained a footing on the SW. coast in the 15th century; the victories of Plassey 1757, and Seringapatam 1799, established British rule throughout the whole peninsula, and the principle that native princes where they retained their thrones were vassals; Sind was won in 1843 and the Punjab in 1849, and the powers of the East India Company transferred to the Queen in 1857, who was proclaimed Empress in 1877; the government is vested in a governor-general aided by an executive and a legislative council, under control, however, of a Secretary of State for India and council at home; there are governors and lieutenant-governors of the presidencies of Madras and Bombay, and of the various provinces; native States are all attached to and subject to the supervision of the government of a province; there is a native army of 146,000 men, and 74,000 European troops are maintained in the country; British rule has developed the resources of the country, advanced its civilisation, and contributed to the welfare of the people; Indian finance is not yet satisfactory; the currency is based on silver, the steady depreciation of which metal has never ceased to hamper the national funds.

India, (1) The Imperial Order of the Crown of, founded in 1878, includes the Queen and certain royal princes, English and Indian, female relatives of the Viceroy, of the governors of Bombay and Madras, and others in high places in India; (2) The Most Exalted Order of the Star of, founded in 1861 and since enlarged, with the sovereign for head and the viceroy as grand-master, and three different grades of knights, designed severally G.C.S.I., K.C.S.I, and C.S.I., a blue ribbon with white stripes being the badge; and (3) The Most Eminent Order of the Empire of, founded in 1878 and enlarged in 1887, with queen and empress at the head, and a knighthood similar to the preceding, their motto, "Imperatricis auspiciis."

Indian Civil Service, a service which, besides embracing the ordinary departments of civil administration, includes judicial, medical, territorial, and even military staff appointments, appointments dependent on the possession of regulated, more or less academic, qualifications.

Indian Mutiny, a wide-spread rebellion on the part chiefly of the Sepoys against British authority in 1857, and which was suppressed by a strong force under Sir Colin Campbell in 1858.

Indian Ocean is that stretch of sea between Africa on the W. and Australia, Java, and Sumatra on the E., which separates in the N. into the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal; the monsoons, or trade-winds, blow here with great regularity; from April to October they are strong from the SW., from October to April more gentle in the opposite direction; there are many islands and reefs of coral formation, such as the Maldive group; St. Paul's and Mauritius are volcanic, while Madagascar and Ceylon are typical continental islands.

Indian Territory (186), a stretch of country in the basin of the Arkansas, Canadian, and Red Rivers, with Kansas on the N., Arkansas on the E., Oklahoma Territory on the W., and separated by the Red River from Texas on the S., set apart for the occupation of the Indian tribes of the western prairies; formerly double its present size, it has been reduced by the purchase in 1890 of Oklahoma.; in the centre and east are fertile plains and great forests of walnut and maple, in which deer and bears abound; the west is a treeless prairie supporting vast herds of cattle; mineral resources are probably rich, but are undeveloped; the principal tribes have their own organisations and civilised institutions, churches, schools, banks, and newspapers; the towns are small, Tahlequah, Lehigh, and M'Alister are the chief.