I

Indiana (2,192), one of the smaller but most populous States of the American Union, lies between Lake Michigan and the Ohio River, with Ohio on the E. and Illinois on the W.; the climate is marked by extremes of heat and cold; the country is somewhat hilly in the S., is mostly level, well watered, and very fertile; agriculture is the chief industry, cereals, potatoes, and tobacco forming the chief crops; there is great mineral wealth, with extensive and varied industries, embracing iron, glass, and textile manufactures, waggon-building, and furniture-making; petroleum wells are abundant, and in one part of the territory natural gas is found in great quantities. First occupied by the French, Indiana was acquired by Britain in 1763, ceded to America 1783, and admitted to the Union in 1816; education in the State university and schools is free; besides Indianapolis, the capital, the largest towns are Evansville (50), Fort Wayne (30), and Terre Haute (30).

Indianapolis (169), capital of Indiana, on the White Ford River, in the centre of the State; a fine city, with wide, tree-lined streets, large iron, brass, and textile manufactures, and canned-meat industry; is a great railroad centre.

Indians, American, the aborigines of America, and now gradually dying out; these aborigines were called Indians by Columbus, because when he discovered America he thought it was India. See American Indians.

India-rubber, Caoutchouc, or Gum Elastic, is a product of the milky juices of several tropical and sub-tropical plants found in the West Indies, Central and South America, West Africa, and India; there is evidence that its properties were partially known to the Spaniards in the West Indies early in the 17th century; but its first introduction to this country was about 1770, when it was employed by artists for erasing black-lead pencil marks, hence its familiar name; it is collected by making incisions in the tree trunk and gathering the slowly exuding juice, which is first solidified by drying, then purified by boiling and washing; it is flexible and elastic, insoluble in water, and impenetrable to gases and fluids, and these qualities give it great commercial importance; the use of pure rubber has been greatly superseded by that of "vulcanised" rubber; mixed with from 1/40 to ½ of its weight of sulphur and combined by heat, the rubber acquires greater elasticity, is not hardened by cold or rendered viscid by heat, and is insoluble in many of the solvents of pure rubber; its usefulness is thus largely increased and greatly extended of late; the demand for rubber is in excess of the supply, but no substitute has been found effective; in recent years care has been bestowed on its economical collection and on its scientific culture.

Indiction, a cycle of 15 years instituted by Constantine the Great, and which began on the 24th September 812, the day of his victory over Maxentius; to find the indiction of any year add 1 and divide by 15.

Indium, a metallic elementary body of rare occurrence, and first discovered in zinc-blende in 1863.

Individualism, the name given to a social system which has respect to the rights of the individual as sovereign, and is strictly opposed to Socialism.

Indo-China, called also the Eastern Peninsula or Farther India, the name given to the large peninsular territory which lies between the Bay of Bengal and the Chinese Sea, lying almost wholly within the Torrid Zone, and embracing the empires of Burma and Annam and the kingdom of Cambodia and Siam, as well as territories under Britain and France, all now mostly divided between the latter two and Siam; it is sparsely peopled owing to its mountainous character and the swampy lands, and the natives are mainly of the Mongolian type.

Indo-European, an epithet applied to a family of the human race with the languages of its several members descended from the Aryans, and found dispersed over an area including the better part of India and Europe.

Indo-Germanic, a term at one time employed especially among German writers, synonymous with Aryan.

Indore, 1, a native principality (1,094), in Central India, somewhat larger than Wales, embraces the Vindbya and Satpura Mountains, and is traversed by the Nerbudda River; there are great forests on the mountains; the valley of the river is fertile; wheat, sugar, cotton, tobacco, and large quantities of opium are raised; the climate is sultry, and at certain seasons unhealthy; the natives are chiefly Mahratta Hindus; among the hills are Bhils and Gonds, the wildest tribes of India; the State is governed by a Maharajah styled Holkar, under supervision of an agent of the Governor-General; education is progressing. Indore, 2, on the Kuthi River, the capital (92), is a poor city of brick and mud; the palace and the British residency, however, are fine buildings; it is connected by rail with Bombay, distant 400 m. SW., and with Ajmere; it was the scene of a British massacre in 1857.

Indra, the king of heaven and national god of the Aryans; gives victory to his people, and is always ready to aid them; he is pre-eminently a warlike god, and as he stands on his war-chariot, drawn by five fawn-coloured horses, he is in a sort the type of an Aryan chieftain; he is sometimes assisted by other gods, but he more frequently fights alone; he is the dispenser, moreover, of all good gifts, and the author and preserver of all living; his power extends over the heavens, and he holds the earth in the hollow of his hand.

Induction, the name given to the logical process by which from a study of particular instances we arrive at a general principle or law. The term is also applied to an electric or magnetic effect produced without direct contact and equal to the cause, being essentially its reproduction.

Indulgence, remission by Church authority of the guilt of a sin on the penitent confession of the sinner to a priest, which, according to Roman Catholic theology, the Church is enabled to dispense out of the inexhaustible treasury in reserve of the merits of Christ.

Indus, a great river of India, 1800 m. long; rises in Thibet, on the N. of the Himalayas, flows NW. through Cashmere, then SW. through the Punjab and Sind to the sea; its upper course is through great gorges and very rapid, but after the entrance of the Kabul River its way lies through arid plains, and it is navigable; after receiving the Panjnad its volume decreases through evaporation and the sinking of some of the many streams into which it divides in the sand; on one of the branches of the delta stands the thriving port of Kurrachee.

Inertia, that property of bodies by which they remain in a state of rest or of motion in a straight line till disturbed by a force moving them in the one case or arresting them in the other.

Inez de Castro. See Castro.

Infallibility, freedom from all error in the past and from all possibility of error in the future as claimed by the Church of Rome. This claim extends to all matters of faith, morals, and discipline in the Church, and is based on an interpretation of Matt. xvi. 18, xxviii. 19; Eph. iv. 11-16, and other passages. It is held that the Church is incapable of embracing any false doctrine from whatever quarter suggested, and that she is guided by the Divine Spirit in actively opposing heresy, in teaching all necessary truth, and in deciding all relative matters of controversy. Infallibility is not claimed in connection with matters of fact, science, or general opinion. The seat of infallibility has been much disputed even in the Roman Catholic Church itself, and the infallibility of the Pope was only decreed so recently as the Vatican Council in 1870. It was always agreed that where the Pope and Bishops were unanimous they were infallible, and their unanimity might be expressed either in a general council, or in a decree of a local council tacitly accepted by the Pope and the rest of the Church, or even in a decree of the Pope alone if the bishops either expressly or tacitly affirmed it. But the Vatican Council decided "that when the Roman Pontiff speaks ex cathedrâ—that is, when he, using his office as pastor and doctor of all Christians, in virtue of his apostolic office, defines a doctrine of faith and morals to be held by the whole Church—he by the Divine assistance, promised to him by the blessed Peter, possesses that infallibility with which the Divine Redeemer was pleased to invest His Church in the definition of doctrine in faith or morals, and that therefore such definitions of the Roman Pontiff are irreformable in their own nature and not because of the consent of the Church." The Greek Church puts forward a moderate claim to inerrancy, holding that as a matter of fact those councils which she regards as oecumenical have not erred in their decrees affecting faith and morals.

Infante, Infanta, the titles given respectively to the royal princes and princesses of Spain and Portugal.

Inferi, the name given by the Latins to the nether world and the gods of it.

Inferno, the hell of Dante, represented as included in nine circles, of which the first six, constituting the uppermost hell, are occupied by those who cannot govern themselves yet have no mind to harm any one else, of which the seventh, constituting the mid-hell, is occupied by those who cannot govern their thoughts, and of which the eighth and ninth, constituting the nether hell, are occupied by those who have wilfully done harm to other people, those in the eighth in hot blood and those in the ninth or lowest in cold blood, the former in passion and the latter without passion, far down below the freezing-point. See Ruskin's "Fors Clavigera," more fully, and by way of authority for this.

Inflection, the name given to the changes in the end of words to indicate relations, not so common in English—being usually expressed among us by prepositions—as in Latin, Greek, and other languages, but occurring in English as king's, mine, ours, to indicate possession; inflection in nouns is called declension, and in verbs conjugation.

Influenza, an epidemic disease, closely resembles, but is quite distinct from, cold in the head. It is characterised by early and marked debility and depression; though usually of short duration, attacks must not be disregarded; fatal results often ensue on carelessness. Convalescence is slow, and complications may ensue. The cause of the malady is obscure; sporadic cases always occur, but from time to time great epidemics of this disease have travelled westward over the world. Their movement seems to depend on atmospheric conditions, but is independent of the season of the year and often contrary to the direction of the wind. Visitations occurred in Britain in 1837-38, 1847-48, and 1889-91.

Infralapsarians, those Calvinists who believe that election and predestination are subsequent to the Fall, while the Supralapsarians believe that these ordinations are as old as eternity.

Infusoria, a name given to certain classes of animalculæ engendered in stagnant water infused with decaying organic matter.

Ingelow, Jean, poetess and novelist, born at Boston, Lincolnshire, died at Kensington; her earliest work appeared anonymously, but a volume of verses under her name was successful in 1863; her poetry is chiefly religious and devotional; later she wrote for children; subsequently she turned to novels, and produced besides several others "Off the Skelligs" in 1872; she will be remembered for her ballad "High Tide on the Coast of Lincolnshire," and a song "Supper at the Mill" (1820-1897).

Ingemann, Bernhard Severin, a Danish poet and novelist; in the latter regard took Scott for his model, his subjects being historical; was a man of varied literary ability (1789-1862).

Ingleby, Clement Mansfield, Shakespearian scholar, born near Birmingham, passed from Cambridge, where he graduated in 1847, to practise as a solicitor, but abandoned law for literature in 1859; his early works were of a philosophical nature, but he is best known as the author of a long series of works on Shakespearian subjects, of which "The Shakespeare Fabrications" was the first and "Shakespeare: the Man and the Book" the chief; he was a Vice-President of the Royal Society of Literature (1823-1886).

Inglesant, John, a celebrated romance by J. H. Shorthouse.

Inglis, Sir James, a Fifeshire gentleman, who in the reign of James IV. distinguished himself against the English and was knighted; author of "Complaint of Scotland"; d. 1554.

Inglis, Sir John, English general; entered the army at 19, served in Canada in 1837; was sent to India, and distinguished himself in the Punjab in 1848; at the outbreak of the Mutiny was stationed at Lucknow, where he heroically defended the residency for 87 days till the relief of the city by Havelock and Outram (1814-1862).

Inglis, Sir Robert Harry, Conservative statesman, opposed every Liberal measure of the period, from that of Catholic Emancipation to the Abolition of the Corn Laws (1786-1855).

Ingoldsby, Thomas, the pseudonym of Rev. Richard Barham (q. v.), author of "Ingoldsby Legends," a collection of humorous tales in verse.

Ingolstadt (16), a Bavarian town and fortress on the Danube, 50 m. N. of Münich, has many ancient associations; once the seat of a university; its manufactures now are beer, cannon, gunpowder; salt is mined in the vicinity.

Ingraham, Joseph Holt, author of "The Prince of the House of David," born at Portland, Maine; after some years spent at sea, became a teacher of languages in Mississippi, and was ordained Episcopal clergyman in 1855; prior to his ordination he wrote stories of adventure, "Captain Kyd," &c., but subsequently confined himself to biblical subjects (1809-1860).

Ingres, Jean Dominique Auguste, a great French painter, born at Montauban; studied in Paris; in 1806 went to Rome, and 14 years after to Florence, but became professor of Fine Arts at the Academy in Paris in 1824; wounded by hostile criticisms he left Paris for Rome again in 1834, where he became Director of the French Academy in Rome; in 1841 he returned to Paris, where he died; he followed his master David in his choice of classical subjects, but his work met with varied reception, now favourable, now the reverse; the "Portrait of Cherubini," and other pictures, however, won for him great admiration in his later days; he was made a Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour (1781-1867).

Ingulph, abbot of Croyland, long credited with the authorship of a history of the monastery, which has since been proved to be a fabrication of a later date, of probably the 13th or 14th century; he was appointed abbot in 1080; d. 1109.

Inkermann, a small Tartar village E. of Sebastopol harbour; the scene of a battle between the Russians and allied forces, to the defeat of the former after a prolonged struggle on 5th November 1854.

Inner Temple. See Inns of Court.

Innes, Cosmo, lawyer and antiquary, born at Durris, of an old Scotch family; professor of History in Edinburgh University; author of "Scotland in the Middle Ages," "Lectures on Scotch Legal Antiquities," and "Sketches of Early Scotch History" (1798-1874).

Innes, Thomas (Father Innes) Scotch historian, born in Aberdeenshire, educated at Paris; became a priest in 1692; after three years' service in Banffshire he returned to Paris, where he held a scholastic appointment till his death; in politics a Jacobite, in religious matters he had leanings to the Jansenist heresy; a diligent student of Scottish history, he produced the earliest scientific Scoto-historical works; his "Critical Essay on the Ancient Inhabitants of Scotland" and "Civil and Ecclesiastical History of Scotland" (unfinished), display honesty and penetration (1662-1744).

Innisfail, an ancient name of Ireland.

Innocent, the name of 13 Popes: Innocent I., Pope from 402 to 417; Innocent II., Pope from 1130 to 1143; Innocent III., Pope from 1198 to 1216; Innocent IV., Pope from 1243 to 1254; Innocent V., Pope in 1276; Innocent VI., Pope from 1352 to 1362, resided at Avignon; Innocent VII., Pope from 1404 to 1406; Innocent VIII., Pope from 1484 to 1492; Innocent IX., Pope in 1591; Innocent X., Pope from 1644 to 1655, condemned Jansenism; Innocent XI., Pope from 1676 to 1689; Innocent XII., Pope from 1691 to 1700; Innocent XIII., Pope from 1721 to 1724; of these there were two of note.

Innocent III., the greatest of the name, born in Arragon; succeeded Celestine III.; extended the territorial power of the Church, and made nearly all Christendom subject to its sway; essayed the recovery of Palestine, and promoted a crusade against the Albigenses; excommunicated Otto IV., emperor of Germany; put England under an interdict, and deposed King John; was zealous for the purity as well as supremacy of the Church, and countenanced every movement that contributed to enhance its influence and stereotype its beliefs as well as its forms of worship, transubstantiation among the one and auricular confession among the other; though harsh, and even cruel, to those whom he conceived to be the enemies of the faith, he was personally a man of blameless life, and did much to reform the morals of the clergy.

Innocent XI., succeeded Clement X., is celebrated for his contest with Louis XIV., and as giving occasion thereby to a protest of the Gallican clergy, and a declaration on their part of what is known as the Gallican Liberties (q. v.), and for a further contest he had with Louis in regard to certain immunities claimed, to the scandal of the Church, by foreign ambassadors residing in Rome, an interference which Louis resented on behalf of his representatives among them, but, as it happened in vain.

Innocents, The Holy, Feast of, a festival celebrated in the Western Church on the 28th December and in the Eastern on the 29th, to commemorate the slaughter by Herod of the children at Bethlehem from two years old and under, and who have from the earliest times been included among the holy martyrs of the Church.

Inns of Court, are four voluntary societies—Lincoln's Inn, the Inner and the Middle Temple, and Gray's Inn—with whom rests the exclusive right to call men to the English bar; they provide lectures and hold examinations in law, and they have discretionary powers to refuse admission to the bar or to expel and disqualify persons of unsuitable character from it; each Inn possesses considerable property, a dining hall, library, and chapel, and is subject to the jurisdiction of an irresponsible, self-elective body of Benchers, who are usually judges or senior counsel; these societies originated in the 13th century, when the practice of law passed out of the hands of the clergy.

Innsbruck (23), on the Inn, at the head of the Brenner Pass, 100 m. S. of Münich; is the capital of the Austrian Tyrol, an ancient and beautiful town, rich in art treasures, with a university and manufactures of woollen cloth, glass ware, and stained glass.

Ino, the daughter of Cadmus and Harmonia, the wife of Athamas, king of Thebes, who was changed into a sea-deity as she fled for refuge from her husband, who had gone raving mad and sought her life.

Inoculation is the introduction of disease germs into the system, usually by puncture of the skin or hypodermic injection; many diseases so introduced assume a mild form, and render the subject not liable to the severe form. Inoculation for smallpox, the virus being taken from actual smallpox pustules, was practised by the ancient Brahmans and by the Chinese 600 years before Christ, and its practice continued in the East. It was introduced to this country from Turkey in 1717, and extensively practised until superseded by Jenner's discovery of vaccination at the end of the century, and finally prohibited by law in 1840. Inoculation has been found successful in the prevention of other diseases, notably anthrax, hydrophobia, and recently malaria.

Inquisition, an ecclesiastical tribunal established in 1248 under Pope Innocent IV., and set up successively in Italy, Spain, Germany, and the S. of France, for the trial and punishment of heretics, of which that established in Spain achieved the greatest notoriety from the number of victims it sacrificed, and the remorseless tortures to which they were subjected, both when under examination to extort confession and after conviction. The rigour of its action began to abate in the 17th century, but it was not till 1835, after frequent attempts to limit its power and suppress it, that it was abolished in Spain. Napoleon suppressed it in France in 1808, and after an attempted revival from 1814 to 1820, its operations there came to an end. St. Dominic (q. v.) has the credit of having invented the institution by the zeal which animated him for the orthodoxy of the Church.

Insanity. See Inspiration.

Inspiration, an earnest, divinely-awakened, soul-subduing sense and perception of the presence of the invisible in the visible, of the infinite in the finite, of the ideal in the real, of the divine in the human, and, in ecstatic moments, of very God in man, accompanied with a burning desire to impart to others the vision revealed; distinguished as "seraphic" from insanity as "demonic" by this, that the inspired man sees an invisible which is there, and the insane an invisible which is not there, states of mind so like otherwise that the one may be, and often is, mistaken for the other, the inspired man taken for an insane, and the insane man for an inspired.

Inspiration of the Scriptures. According to one view the Scriptures are throughout verbally inspired, and every word in them dictated by the Spirit of God; according to another, though they are not verbally inspired, they contain a record of divine things written under divine inspiration; according to a third, though not written under divine inspiration in any part, they contain a faithful record of a divine revelation; and according to a fourth, they contain a record merely of what a succession of God-fearing men in sympathy with each other and their race saw and felt to be the clear purpose of God in His providence of the world.

Inspired Idiot, Horace Walpole's name for Oliver Goldsmith.

Institute of France was established by the Directory in 1795, to take the place of the four academies suppressed by the Convention two years previously. In 1816 Louis XVIII. gave back the old names to its four sections, viz. L'Académie Française, L'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres, L'Académie des Sciences, and L'Académie des Beaux Arts. In 1832 was added L'Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques. Each academy has its own separate organisation and work, and participates besides in the advantages of the common library, archives, and funds. Election, which is in every case subject to government confirmation, is by ballot, and every member receives an annual salary of at least 1500 francs. Government votes a sum of money annually to the Institute. Members of the French Academy have special duties and privileges, and in some cases special remuneration. They allot every year prizes for eloquence and poetry; a prize "to the poor Frenchman who has done the most virtuous action throughout the year," and one to the Frenchman "who has written and published the book most conducive to good morals." Membership in the Académie Française is strictly limited to 40 Frenchmen. The others have, besides, from 40 to 70 members each, also Associate, foreign and corresponding, members. The Institute centralises the pursuit of all branches of knowledge and art, and has been the model of similar national institutes in Madrid, Lisbon, Stockholm, and St. Petersburg.

Institutes of the Christian Religion, a celebrated work of Calvin's, in exposition of the doctrines of the French Protestants, hence called Calvinists in France. See Calvin.

Intaglio, name given to a gem with a design incised in the surface.

Intellect, the faculty of clear and decisive intelligence, or of instant and sure perception.

Interlaken (2), a small town, a pretty place, on the Aar, in Switzerland, "between the lakes" Thun and Brienz; it is near to some of the finest Swiss scenery, and is a famous health resort, and visited annually by 25,000 tourists.

International, The, a secret socialistic organisation, the outcome of the teaching of Karl Marx, which, though it has changed its name, has wide-spread ramifications throughout Europe, the object of which appears to be the emancipation of labour, and the assertion everywhere of the sovereign rights of the working-man, to the extinction of all merely national and class interests.

Intuition, a name given to immediate knowledge, as distinct from mediate or inferential knowledge, and which is matter of consciousness or direct perception.

Intus-susception, a displacement of the bowel, in which a higher portion becomes folded or telescoped into a lower; is a frequent cause of obstruction, and a serious, though not always fatal, condition; the term is also applied to the process by which nutriment is absorbed and becomes part of the system.

Invalides, Hôtel des, an institution in Paris, founded by Louis XIV. in 1674, for retired court servants and invalided soldiers; the church, the nave of which is adorned with military trophies, is surmounted by a majestic dome, under which the remains of Napoleon were deposited in 1840.

Inveraray, county town of Argyllshire, on the NW. shore of Loch Fyne, close to which is the castle, the residence of the Duke of Argyll.

Inverness (21), county town of Inverness-shire and capital of the Northern Highlands, is situated on the Ness, near the Moray Firth, amid picturesque surroundings, is rich in interesting memories; has several public institutions, several manufactures, and a considerable trade; the inhabitants are distinguished for the purity of their English.

Inverness-shire (90), the largest county in Scotland, stretches from the Moray Firth to the Atlantic, and includes many islands, Skye, the Outer Hebrides (except Lewis), and others; it embraces a large part of the Highlands, is very mountainous, has many glens and lochs, but little fertile land; there are large deer forests, grouse moors, and sheep runs; Ben Nevis, the highest mountain in the British Isles (4406 ft.), is in this county.

Invisible, The, He who or that which cannot be seen, felt, handled, or even conceived of, and yet who or which is, and alone is, as no one, as nothing else can be.

Io, in the Greek mythology a daughter of Inachos (q. v.), beloved by Zeus, whom Hera out of jealousy changed into a heifer and set the hundred-eyed Argus to watch, but when Zeus had by Hermes slain the watcher, Hera sent a gadfly to goad over the world, over which she ranged distractedly till she reached Egypt, where Osiris married her, and was in connection with him worshipped as Isis.

Iodine, a non-metallic element originally obtained from kelp, but now found in South America in combination with sodium, used largely both free and in combination in medicine and surgery, in photography, and in making aniline dyes.

Iodoform, a crystalline substance similar to chloroform in composition, only in it iodine takes the place of chlorine; it is used in surgery as an antiseptic.

Iolcus, a town in Thessaly, the port from which the Argonauts sailed in quest of the Golden Fleece.

Ion, in the Greek mythology son of Apollo by Creusa, and exposed by her in the cave where she bore him, but who was conveyed by the god to Delphi and educated by a priestess, and was afterwards owned by his mother, and became the ancestor of the Ionians, her husband, Xuthus, being kept throughout in the dark.

Iona, a fertile little island 1½ m. W. of Mull, where St. Columba landed from Ireland A.D. 563, and built a monastery which was for centuries the centre of ecclesiastical life and missionary enterprise among the Scots of Scotland and Ireland and the Angles of the N. of England. It is 3½ m. long and 1½ broad.

Ionia, ancient name of the western districts of Asia Minor between the Hermus and the Mæander, with adjacent islands; was colonised by Greeks 1050 B.C., and its chief cities, including Miletus, Ephesus, Samos, Chios, and later Smyrna, formed the Ionian League; the Ionians were noted for wealth, art, and luxury; coming under Persian yoke in 557 B.C. they deserted to Greece 479 B.C., in the great war, and became again independent; from 387 B.C. they were again under Persia till Alexander the Great took them and merged their history in that of the surrounding peoples.

Ionian Islands (250), a chain of forty mountainous islands lying off the W. coast of Greece, the largest being Corfu (78), Santa Maura (25), Cephalonia (80), and Zante (44). The climate is good, and there is much fertile soil in the valleys except in Cephalonia; corn, grapes, and currants are grown; sulphur and coal are found in Corfu; their history has been very chequered; after belonging at different times to Venice, France and Turkey, they were seized by Britain and constituted a dependency in 1815; never satisfied with British rule, they were a source of constant friction which Mr. Gladstone's mission in 1858 was insufficient to allay, and were handed over to Greece in 1863.

Ionic Order, an order of Grecian architecture, characterised by the volute of its capital in the form of a ram's horn, and in which the cornice is dentated, the shaft fluted, and the entablature plain or embellished.

Ionic School, the name of the earliest of the schools of philosophy in Greece, the prominent members of which were natives of Ionia, one and all of whom traced the beginning or basis of things back to the action of some physical agent, such as water, air, fire, &c., and among whom are reckoned such men as Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, and Heraclitus.

Iowa (1,754), one of the United States, on the right bank of the Mississippi River, with Minnesota to the N. and Missouri to the S., and the Missouri River on its western border; is well watered, very fertile, and, though liable to extremes of temperature, very healthy; agriculture flourishes, the country being an undulating plain and most of the soil being arable; cereals and root crops are raised, cattle fed; there are poultry and dairy farms; coal, gypsum, and lead are mined; manufactures include mill products, canned meats, and agricultural implements; general education in the State is advanced, State policy in this respect being liberal; Iowa was admitted to the Union, 1846; Des Moines (32) is the capital; Iowa (7) is the seat of the State University and of some flour-mills and factories.

Iphicrates, a famous Athenian general, the son of a shoemaker, celebrated throughout Greece for his defeat of the Spartans in 392, as well as for other great military exploits, for which he was rewarded by his countrymen with almost unprecedented honours; d. 348 B.C.

Iphigenia, the daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra; her father having killed a favourite deer belonging to Artemis in Aulis as he was setting out for Troy, the goddess was offended, and Calchas (q. v.), when consulted, told him she could only be appeased by the sacrifice of his daughter; this he proceeded to do, but as he was preparing to offer her up the goddess descended in a cloud, carried her off to Tauris, and made her a priestess in her temple. The story has been dramatised by Euripides, Racine, and Geothe.

Ipsus, a small town in Phrygia, the scene of a great contest between the generals of Alexander for succession to the empire.

Ipswich (57), a town in Suffolk, on the Orwell, 12 m. from the sea; is an old town, and has a number of interesting, as well as some old-fashioned, buildings; is well provided with churches and educational establishments, and was the birthplace of Cardinal Wolsey; manufactures agricultural implements, and exports besides these leather, oil, coke and agricultural produce.

Iquique (16), important seaport in the N. of Chili; exports nitrates, iodine, and silver.

Irak-Arabi, ancient Babylonia watered by the Euphrates and the Tigris.

Iran, the ancient name or plateau of Asia, extending N. and S. between the Hindu Kush and the Persian Gulf, and E. and W. between the Indus and Kurdistan; inhabited by the Aryans; is the official name for Persia.

Iranians, the inhabitants of Iran, a people constituting an important branch of the Indo-European family, including the Persians, Medes, &c.

Irawadi, a river, navigable throughout its whole course, formed by the union of two streams from the mountains of Thibet; flows S. through Burma 700 miles, passing Mandalay, and falling into the Bay of Bengal in a delta, on one branch of which stands Rangoon.

Ireland (5,175), an island rather more than half the size of and lying to the west of England and Wales, from which it is divided by the North Channel (13 m. wide), the Irish Sea (140 m.), and the St. George's Channel (50 m.). It consists of a large undulating plain in the centre, containing extensive bogs, several large loughs—Neagh, the Erne, Allen, Derg, drained by the rivers Shannon, Barrow, Liffey, and Boyne, and surrounded on almost all sides by maritime highlands, of which those on the SW., NW., and E. are the highest. The N. and W. coasts are rugged and much indented. The climate is milder, more equable, and somewhat more rainy than that of England; but the cereal and green crops are the same. Flax is grown in the N. The tendency is to revert to pasturage however, agriculture being generally in a backward state. Unfavourable land-laws, small holdings, and want of capital have told heavily against the Irish peasantry. Fisheries are declining. The chief manufacture is linen in Belfast and other Ulster towns. Irish exports consist of dairy produce, cattle, and linen, and are chiefly to Great Britain. Primary education is largely supported by government grants; there are many excellent schools and colleges; the chief universities are Dublin and the Royal (an examining body only). In Ulster the Protestants slightly outnumber the Roman Catholics, in all other parts the Roman Catholics are in a vast majority. Ireland was occupied by Iberian peoples in prehistoric times; these were conquered and absorbed by Celtic tribes; many kingdoms were set up, and strife and confusion prevailed. There was Christianity in the island before St. Patrick crossed from Strathclyde in the 5th century. Invasions by Danes, 8th to 10th centuries, and conquest by Normans under Henry II. 1162-1172, fomented the national disquiet. Under Tudor and Stuart rule the history of the country is a long story of faction and feud among the chiefs and nobles, of rebellions, expeditions, massacres, and confiscations. Sympathy with the Stuarts brought on it the scourge of Cromwell (1649) and the invasion by William III. Thereafter the penal laws excluded Roman Catholics from Parliament. The union of the Irish with the British Parliament took place in 1801. Catholic disabilities were removed 1829. An agitation for the repeal of the Union was begun in 1842 by Daniel O'Connell, and carried on by the Fenian movement of 1867 and the Home Rule movement led by Charles Parnell. A Home Rule bill was lost in the Commons in 1886, and another in the Lords in 1893. The Church of Ireland (Protestant Episcopal) was disestablished in 1871. Since the Union the executive has been in the hands of a lord-lieutenant, secretary, and council appointed by the Crown. Ireland is far behind Great Britain in wealth, and its population has been steadily declining.